BIO225 Exam 1 Objectives

 

Lecture 1 The Microbial World

 

Introduction

1.     Define:

• Microbiology

• Microbe

 

Nomenclature

2.     Briefly describe the contributions of Carolus Linnaeus.

3.     Define:

• Genus
• Species (specific epithet)

4.     Correctly write the scientific names of microorganisms.

 

Types of Microbes/Classification of Microbes

5.     List and describe the six kinds of microbes.

 

Classification of Microorganisms

6.     List the three domains and describe the kinds of organisms found in each.

 

History of Microbiology

7.     Briefly describe the contributions to microscopy of the following:

• Hans and Zacharias Janssen
• Robert Hooke
• Anton van Leeuwenhoek

8.     Define and compare spontaneous generation and biogenesis.

9.     Briefly describe the contributions of the following to the debate between biogenesis and spontaneous generation:

• Francesco Redi
• John Needham
• Lazzaro Spallanzani
• Rudolf Virchow
• Louis Pasteur

10.  Define:

• Fermentation

• Pasteurization

11.  Describe the germ theory of disease.

12.  Briefly describe the contributions of the following to the germ theory of disease:

• Robert Koch
• Agostino Bassi
• Louis Pasteur
• Joseph Lister
• Ignaz Semmelweiss

13.  Explain the purpose of Kochπs postulates.

14.  Define vaccination

15.  Briefly describe the contributions of the following to disease prevention by vaccination:

• Edward Jenner
• Louis Pasteur

16.  Define chemotherapy

17.  Differentiate between synthetic drugs and antibiotics.

18.  Briefly describe the contributions to chemotherapy of:

• Paul Ehrlich
• Alexander Fleming

 

Modern Developments in Microbiology

17.  Define:

• Bacteriology
• Mycology
• Parasitology
• Immunology
• Virology
• Recombinant DNA technology

 

Roles of Microbes

18.  Describe the roles of microorganisms.

19.  Define and describe:

• Normal microbiota (normal flora)

• Infectious disease
• Emerging infectious disease

 

Lecture 2 Chemical Principles

 

Introduction

1.     Define:

ß       Chemistry

ß       Matter

ß       Atom

ß       Molecule

 

Structure of Atoms

2.     Describe the basic structure of an atom.

3.     Define:

ß       Nucleus

ß       Proton

ß       Neutron

ß       Electron

ß       Atomic number

ß       Atomic weight or mass

4.     Calculate the number of protons and neutrons in a nucleus of an atom and the number of electrons in the energy levels from the atomic weight and atomic number of a given element.

5.     Define:

ß       Element

ß       Isotope

ß       Electron shells or energy levels

ß       Electronic configuration

6.     Indicate the number of electrons that an atom can hold in the:

ß       First energy level

ß       Second energy level

ß       Third energy level

 

Chemical Bonds

7.     Define:

ß       Chemical bond

ß       Valence

ß       Compound

8.     List the three things that atoms can do to fill up the outermost energy level.

9.     List and describe the four types of chemical bonds and give examples of each.

10.  Define:

∑      Ion

∑      Cation

∑      Anion

11.  Differentiate among single, double and triple bonds.

 

Moles and Molecular Weight

12.  Define:

ß       Molecular weight

ß       Mole

13.  Calculate the molecular weight of a given compound.

 

Chemical Reactions

14.  Define:

∑      Chemical reaction

∑      Chemical energy

15.  Differentiate between endergonic and exergonic reactions.

16.  List the four types of chemical reactions and give examples of each.

 

Important Molecules in Biological Systems

17.  Differentiate between inorganic compounds and organic compounds

 

Inorganic Molecules

18.  Define:

ß       Polar molecule

ß       Solvent

ß       Dissociation

ß       Solute

ß       Acid

ß       Base

ß       Salt

ß       pH

ß       Buffer

19.  Describe the roles of water in biological systems.

20.  Define acid-base balance and describe its importance.

21.  Describe the pH scale and be able to interpret a pH value.

 

Organic Molecules

17.  Define

• Organic molecules
• Functional group
• Macromolecules
• Polymers
• Monomers
• Isomers

18.  Explain why life is based on carbon compounds.

19.  Describe the structure of carbon compounds.

20.  Describe:

ß       Dehydration synthesis

ß       Hydrolysis

21.  List the four biologically important classes of organic molecules and describe the kinds of compounds included in each.

22.  Explain why ATP is the most important energy storage compound in a cell and describe its structure.

 

 

Lecture 4 Prokaryotic Cells

 

Types of Cells

1.     Distinguish between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.

2.     List the major characteristics of:

∑      Prokaryotic cells

∑      Eukaryotic cells

 

Morphology of Bacterial Cells

3.     List the three most common shapes of prokaryotic (bacterial) cells.

4.     Give the different arrangements and specific examples of each type (shape) of cell.

5.     Differentiate between the term bacillus and Bacillus.

 

Structures External to the Cell Wall

5.     Describe and give the function of:

∑  Glycocalyx

∑      Capsule

∑      Slime layer

∑  Flagella

∑  Axial filament

∑  Fimbriae

∑  Pili (conjugation or sex pili)

6.     Describe the chemical composition of the glycocalyx.

7.     Differentiate between capsule and slime layer.

8.     List the four arrangement types of flagella.

9.     Define taxis and differentiate between chemotaxis and phototaxis.

10.  Identify the H antigen and explain its importance.

 

Cell Wall

7.     Describe the chemical composition of the bacterial cell wall.

8.     Compare and contrast gram-negative, gram-positive and acid-fast cell walls.

9.     Describe L-forms.

10.  Describe mycoplasmas.

11.  Differentiate between protoplasts and spheroplasts.

 

Structures Internal to the Cell Wall/Cell Physiology

12.  Describe the composition and structure of the plasma membrane.

13.  Describe the fluid mosaic model.

14.  Compare and contrast the functions of the plasma membrane in prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells.

15.  Identify

• Chromatophores or thylakoids
• Mesosomes

 

Cell Membrane Physiology

16.  Define selective permeability.

17.  Differentiate between passive and active transport mechanisms.

18.  List and describe three types of passive transport mechanisms used by prokaryotic cells.

19.  Differentiate between simple and facilitated diffusion.

20.  Define osmotic pressure.

21.  Describe what will occur when a cell is placed in a (an)

∑  Hypertonic solution

∑  Hypotonic solution

∑  Isotonic solution

22.  List and describe two types of active transport mechanisms used by prokaryotic cells.

• Active transport
• Group translocation

 

Internal Structures of the Cell

23.  Define, identify and give the function of the following:

∑  Cytoplasm

∑  Nucleoid (Nuclear area)

∑  Chromosome

∑  Plasmid

∑  Ribosome

∑  Inclusions

∑  Carboxysomes

∑  Gas vacuoles

∑  Endospores

24.  List the genera in which endospores are produced.

25.  Define:

• Sporulation or sporogenesis
• Germination

 

Endosymbiotic Theory

26.  Describe the endosymbiotic theory.

27.  List the two organelles in eukaryotic cells that resemble a prokaryotic cell.

 

Lecture 5 Microbial Metabolism

 

Introduction

1.     Define and describe the purposes of:

• Metabolism
• Anabolism
• Catabolism
• Metabolic pathway

2.     Describe what determines which metabolic pathways are present in a particular organism.

 

Enzymes

3.     Describe the collision theory.

4.     Define:

• Enzyme
• Activation energy
• Substrate
• Enzyme-substrate complex
• Active site

5.     Describe the function of enzymes.

6.     Describe the efficiency of enzymes.

7.     Describe how enzymes are named and list and describe the major classes of enzymes.

8.     List and describe the components of an enzyme.

9.     Describe the mechanism of enzymatic action.

 

Control of Enzyme Activity

10.  List and describe the factors that influence enzymatic activity.

11.  Define enzyme inhibition.

12.  Differentiate between competitive and noncompetitive inhibition.

13.  Describe the mechanisms of competitive and noncompetitive inhibition.

14.  Describe feedback or end-product inhibition.

15.  Define ribozyme.

 

Energy Production (Generation of ATP)

16.  Define and describe oxidation-reduction reactions.

17.  Describe the following cellular processes for the production of ATP:

• Substrate-level phosphorylation
• Oxidative phosphorylation

• Photophosphorylation

 

Carbohydrate Catabolism

18.  List the two general processes used by bacteria to obtain energy from glucose.

 

Carbohydrate Catabolism: Respiration

19.  List the three processes that are required for the complete catabolism of glucose to carbon dioxide.

20.  Define and describe glycolysis. Give the chemicals made in glycolysis.

21.  Define and describe the following alternatives to glycolysis:

• Pentose phosphate pathway

• Entner-Doudoroff pathway

22.  Define cellular respiration and describe where it occurs in the eukaryotic cell and the prokaryotic cell.

23.  Differentiate between aerobic and anaerobic respiration.

24.  List the types of final electron acceptors for:

• Aerobic respiration
• Anaerobic respiration

25.  Define and describe oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate (preparatory or transition step). Explain what happens in this process.

26.  Define and describe the Krebπs cycle (citric acid cycle). Give the chemicals made in this cycle.

27.  Define and describe the electron transport chain.

28.  Explain what occurs the electron transport chain.

29.  List the components of the electron transport chain.

30.  List the electron carrier coenzymes used in:

• Glycolysis

• Oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate (preparatory or transition step)

• Krebπs cycle (citric acid cycle)

 

Carbohydrate Catabolism: Chemiosmosis

31.  Define chemiosmosis.

32.  Describe the chemiosmotic mechanism used to produce ATP.

 

Carbohydrate Catabolism: Energy Carriers and ATP Production/Use

33.  Give the amount, if any, of NADH + H⁺ produced in:

• Glycolysis
• Oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate
• Krebπs cycle (citric acid cycle)

34.  Give the amount, if any, of FADH₂, if any, (directly) produced in:

• Glycolysis
• Oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate

• Krebπs cycle (citric acid cycle)

35.  Give the amount of ATP, if any, (directly) produced in:

• Glycolysis
• Oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate

• Krebπs cycle (citric acid cycle)

36.  Give the amount, if any, of ATP, produced via the electron chain from coenzyme energy carriers which were reduced in:

• Glycolysis
• Oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate
• Krebπs cycle (citric acid cycle)

37.  Give the amount, if any, of ATP, if any, used in:

• Glycolysis

• Oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate

• Krebπs cycle (citric acid cycle)

38.  Differentiate between ATP and GTP.

39.  Explain why there is more potential energy in one molecule of glucose than there is in one molecule of ATP.

40.  Explain why 38 ATPs can be produced from the oxidation of one molecule of glucose in a prokaryotic cell whereas only 36 ATPs are produced from the same process in a eukaryotic cell.

 

Carbohydrate Catabolism: Fermentation

41.  Define fermentation.

42.  List the processes use by a strictly fermentative bacterium produces energy.

43.  Differentiate among the following:

• Lactic acid fermentation (homolactic)
• Alcohol fermentation

• Heterolactic fermentation

 

Lipid and Protein Catabolism

44.  Explain how lipid and protein catabolism can be integrated with carbohydrate metabolism.

45.  Define beta-oxidation and explain what it does.

46.  Define:

• Deamination
• Decarboxylation
• Dehydrogenation

 

Biochemical Tests and Bacterial Identification

47.  Describe how amino acid catabolism is used in laboratory identification of bacteria.

48.  Describe the use of fermentation end products in laboratory identification of bacteria.

 

Photosynthesis

49.  Define and describe photosynthesis.

50.  Differentiate among the following:

• Cyclic photophosphorlyation
• Non-cyclic photophosphorlyation
• Calvin-Benson cycle

40.  Identify the products of photosynthesis.

 

Nutritional Patterns

41.  List the four nutritional types of microorganisms and give the energy and carbon sources for each.

 

Anabolism (Metabolic Pathways of Energy Use)

51.  Describe how the following compounds can be produced through anabolic reactions:

• Polysaccharides
• Lipids
• Amino acids and proteins
• Nucleic acids

 

Lecture 6 Microbial Growth

 

Growth Requirements

1.     List and describe the chemical and physical conditions necessary for bacterial growth.

2.     Describe the five groups of bacteria based on temperature preference and tolerance:

ß       Psychrophiles

ß       Psychrotrophs

ß       Mesophiles

ß       Thermophiles

ß       Hyperthermophiles

3.     Describe the five groups of bacteria based on oxygen utilization and tolerance:

ß       Obligate aerobes

ß       Facultative anaerobes

ß       Obligate anaerobes

ß       Aerotolerant anaerobes

ß       Microaerophiles

4.     List the bacteria types that contain the following enzymes and describe the roles these enzymes in oxygen utilization.

ß       Superoxide dismutase

ß       Catalase

ß       Peroxidase

 

Culture Media

5.     Explain how bacterial growth requirements are provided in laboratory cultures.

6.     Explain how the pH of culture media is controlled.

7.     List the two basic types of media used in the bacteriological laboratory.

8.     Distinguish between chemically defined media and complex media.

9.     Define capnophiles.

10.  Describe the use of the following equipment in the bacteriological laboratory:

ß       Anaerobe jar

ß       Anaerobe chamber

ß       Candle jar

ß       Carbon dioxide incubator

10.  Define reducing media.

11.  Define, describe and give examples of the following kinds of media.

ß       Selective media

ß       Differential media

ß       Selective and differential media

ß       Enrichment media

Cultures

12.  Define and explain the significance of the following:

ß       Pure culture

ß       Colony

13.  Describe the streak plate method for the isolation of bacteria.

14.  Describe how bacteria can be preserved for extended periods of time.

15.  Define:

ß       Binary fission

ß       Generation time

ß       Logarithmic growth

ß       Bacterial growth curve

15.  Relate the number of generations to the exponent of logarithmic growth.

16.  Draw and describe the bacterial growth curve.

ß       Identify the events occurring in each of the four sections

ß       Identify the point or points on the growth curve where there is (are) logarithmic change in cell numbers.

ß       Identify the point or points on the growth curve where bacteria are most susceptible to control mechanisms such as antimicrobial drugs and radiation

ß       Identify the point or points on the growth curve where bacterial reproduction equals bacterial death

17.  List and describe the methods for the measurement of bacterial growth generally used in the lab.

 

 

Lecture 7 Control of Microbial Growth

 

Introduction and Terms

1.     Define:

∑      Sterilization

∑      Disinfection

∑      Antisepsis

∑      Degerming

∑      Sanitization

∑      Biocide or germicide

∑      Bacteriostasis

∑      Sepsis

∑      Asepsis

 

Microbial Death

2.     Describe the pattern of microbial death caused by antimicrobial agents.

3.     List the factors that influence the rate of microbial death.

4.     List the two general mechanisms that can be used to control microbial agents.

 

Physical Methods of Control

5.     List and describe the physical methods of microbial control.

6.     Describe how to kill endospores.

7.     Give the uses and limitations of:

∑  The autoclave

∑  Pasteurization

∑  Direct flaming

∑  Incineration

∑  Hot-air oven

∑  Filtration – Membrane and high-efficiency particulate air filters (HEPA)

∑  Low temperatures

∑  High pressures

∑  Desiccation

∑  Osmotic pressure

∑  Radiation

8.     Differentiate between classic pasteurization and high-temperature short-time pasteurization.

9.     Describe how to sterilize heat labile solutions.

10.  Explain why salts and sugars can be used to preserve food.

 

Chemical Methods of Control

11.  Differentiate between antiseptics and disinfectants.

12.  Define phenol coefficient and use dilution and interpret data from both kinds of tests.

13.  Describe the filter paper method of antiseptic/disinfectant evaluation.

14.  Describe the use-dilution test for evaluation of antiseptics and/or disinfectants.

15.  List and described the chemical methods of microbial control, give their mode of action and their applications.

16.  Identify those chemicals that may be used in surgical hand scrubs.

17.  Explain why chlorine is antimicrobial.

18.  Identify the concentration of ethyl alcohol that is the most effective against bacteria.

19.  List the heavy metals used in microbial control.

20.  Identify the method used to sterilize plastic instruments and labware.

21.  List the chemicals that are used to control microbial growth in foods.

22.  List the disinfectants that are used as a gas.