Study Notes Exam 1 Revised
Chapter 20: Classification of Living Things
Taxonomy: the branch of biology concerned with identifying and naming organisms
- Carolus Linnaeus developed the binomial system to name species
- the binomial system of nomenclature names organisms using a two-part Latin name
o first part is the genus; closely related species are assigned to the same genus
o second part is the specific epithet; it usually provides something descriptive about an organism
o a scientific name consists of both genus and specific epithet (e.g., Panthera tigris and Panthera leo)
o both names are italicized or underlined; the first letter of only the genus name is capitalized
o the genus can be abbreviated when used with a specific epithet if the full name was given before (H. sapiens)
- the classification of organisms is an ongoing process
o there are estimated to be between 3 and 30 million species living on earth
o we have currently named one million species of animals and a half million plant and microorganismic species
o some groups, such as birds, are nearly all known; some insect groups are mostly unknown
- Linnaeus considered each species to have a unique structure that made it distinct
- the biological definition of a species: a group of organisms that interbreed and share the same gene pool
- when a species has a wide geographic range,they may tend to interbreed where they overlap; these populations may be named as subspecies
o the rat snakes Elaphe obsoleta obsoleta and Elaphe obsoleta bairdi are subspecies of Elaphe obsoleta
o including the subspecies makes this a trinomial, or three-part, name
- in this chapter, a classification approach is taken to the definition of species
o the term "species" is used for a taxonomic category below the rank of genus
o species share a more recent common ancestor with species in same genus than with those in other taxa
o a taxon is a group of organisms in a classification category; Rosa or Felis are taxa at the genus level
o a common ancestor is an ancestor held in common by at least two lines of descent
- Aristotle classified life into 14 groups (e.g., mammals, birds, etc.), and subdivided them by size
- Ray grouped animals and plants according to how he thought they were related
- today, we use a minimum of 7 categories of classification:
o kingdom, phylum (or division for plants), class, order, family, genus & species
o a higher category, the domain, has been proposed to be added to these 7 categories
o the higher the category, the more inclusive it is
o members of a kingdom share general characters; members of a species share quite specific characters
o additional levels of classification can be added by adding super-, sub-, or infra- (e.g., suborder)
- Systematics is the study of the diversity of organisms using information from cellular to population levels
o phylogeny is the evolutionary history of a group of organisms
o a phylogenetic tree indicates common ancestors and lines of descent or lineages
o a primitive character is a trait that is present in a common ancestor and all members of a group
o a derived character is present only in a specific line of descent
- Fossil Record
o because fossils can be dated, fossils can establish the age of a species
o most organisms decay and the chances of becoming a fossil are low
- Homology
o homology is a character similarity that is due to having a common ancestor
o homologous structures are related to each other through common descent but may differ in structure and function (e.g., the forelimbs of a horse and the wings of a bat)
o analogous structures have the same function but are not derived from the same organ in a common ancestor (e.g., the wings of an insect and the wings of a bat)
o convergent evolution is acquisition of similar traits in distantly related lines of descent as a result of adaptation to similar environmental conditions
• both spurges and cacti are adapted to a hot, dry environment and are both similar, but details of flower structure indicate these two groups are not closely related
o parallel evolution produces similar characters in related lineages without occurring in a common ancestor
- Molecular Data
o speciation occurs when mutations bring about changes in base pair sequences of DNA
o Protein Comparisons
• earlier studies used immunological reactions to antibodies, made by injecting a rabbit with cells of one species, to determine the relatedness of two species
• we now use amino acid sequences to determine the differences in proteins between two species
• cytochrome c is a protein found in all aerobic organisms; the amino acid differences in cytochrome c between chickens and humans is 13 but between chickens and ducks is only 3
• since the number of universal proteins is limited, most new studies use RNA and DNA.
- RNA and DNA Comparisons
o all cells have ribosomes for protein synthesis; comparing rRNA sequences provides a reliable indicator of similarity
o Chimpanzees and Humans
• DNA hybridization shows chimpanzees closer to humans than to other apes
• yet humans are kept in a separate family and chimpanzees are with the ape family due to differences in adaptation to the environment
o Mitochondria DNA (mtDNA) changes ten times faster than nuclear DNA
• mtDNA is often used for closely related species
- Molecular Clocks
o nucleic acid changes are not tied to adaptation; the fairly constant changes provide a "molecular clock."
o the fossil record can then be used to calibrate the clock and confirm the hypothesis drawn from molecular data
Systematics Today
- Cladistic Systematics (Willi Hennig)
o cladistics analyzes primitive and derived characters and constructs cladograms on the basis of shared derived characters
o cladogram: a diagram showing relationships among species based on shared, derived characters
o a clade is an evolutionary branch that includes a common ancestor and all its descendent species
o Parsimony
• cladists are guided by principle of parsimony‹the minimum number of assumptions is most logical
- Phenetic Systematics
o phenetic systematists cluster species on the basis of the number of shared similarities, regardless of whether they might be convergent, parallel, or depend on one another
o results of their analysis are depicted in a phenogram
o phenograms vary for the same group of organisms, depending on how the data are collected and handled
- Traditional Systematics
o traditional systematics stresses common ancestry and the degree of structural difference among divergent groups in order to construct phylogenetic trees
• a monophyletic group does not include all groups from all ancestors
o cladists would not use "reptiles" because it does not include all organisms derived from reptiles
Classification Systems
- Naming the Kingdoms
o early biologists recognized two kingdoms: animals (kingdom Animalia) and plants (kingdom Plantae)
o in 1969, R. H. Whittaker suggested a five kingdom system based on cell type, organization, and nutrition:
• Monera: prokaryotic bacteria that obtain organic molecules by absorption or photosynthesis
• Protista: mainly unicellular eukaryotes that obtain organic molecules by absorption, ingestion, or photosynthesis; the classification of protists is debated
• Plantae: multicellular eukaryotes, autotrophic by photosynthesis
• Animalia: multicellular eukaryotes, heterotrophic by ingestion, are generally motile
• Fungi: multicellular eukaryotes, heterotrophic saprotrophs that form spores, lack flagella and have cell walls containing chitin
o generally, protists are considered to have evolved from monerans, and the fungi, plants, and animals evolved from protists via three separate lineages
- Three-Domain System
o sequencing of rRNA suggests all organisms evolved along three distinct lineages: domains Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya
o bacteria diverged first; archaea and eukarya are more closely related than either is to bacteria
o the archaea live in extreme environments: methanogens in anaerobic swamps, halophiles in salt lakes, and thermoacidophiles in hot acidic environments
o the archaea cell wall is diverse but not the same as the bacterial cell wall
o eukarya contains unicellular to multicellular organisms, always with a membrane-bound nucleus
Chapter 21: Viruses, Bacteria & Archaea
- viruses are not organisms: they are noncellular; cannot metabolize; cannot respond to stimuli; multiply only within living cells by parasitizing the synthetic machinery of the infected cell; and evolve as a result of mutation and natural selection
- all viruses are infectious
- in 1884, Pasteur suspected something smaller than bacteria caused rabies; he chose the Latin term for "poison."
- Viral Structure
o viruses are similar in size to a large protein, generally smaller than 200 nm in diameter
o many viruses can be purified and crystallized, and the crystals stored for long periods of time... viral crystals become infectious when the viral particles they contain invade host cells
o all viruses have at least two parts:
• an outer capsid is composed of protein subunits
• an inner core contains either DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) or RNA (ribonucleic acid), but not both
⋅ the viral genome at most has several hundred genes; a human cell contains thousands of genes
⋅ the viral envelope is usually partly host plasma membrane (phospholipids) with viral glycoprotein spikes
⋅ viral particles have proteins, especially enzymes (e.g., polymerases), to produce viral DNA or RNA
- the classification of viruses is based on: their type of nucleic acid (including whether it is single-stranded or double-stranded); their size and shape; and the presence or absence of an outer envelope
- Parasitic Nature
o viruses are obligate intracellular parasites that cannot multiply outside a cell
o animal viruses in laboratories are raised in live chick embryos or in cell culture
o viruses infect all sorts of cells, from bacteria to human cells, but are very specific (tobacco mosaic virus only infects certain plants; the rabies virus infects only mammals; the AIDS virus, HIV, infects only certain human blood cells; hepatitis virus invades only liver tissues; polio virus only reproduces in spinal nerve cells)
- Virus Evolution
o viruses are likely to have originated from the very cells that they infect
o viruses often mutate; therefore, it is correct to say that they evolve
o viral mutation can be troublesome: a vaccine effective today may not be effective tomorrow (influenza (flu) viruses mutate regularly)
- Viral Reproduction
o viruses gain entry into and are specific to a particular host cell because portions of the capsid (or spikes of the envelope) adhere to specific receptor sites on host cell surface
o viral nucleic acid then enters a cell, where the viral genome codes for production of protein units in the capsid
o the virus relies on host cell enzymes, ribosomes, transfer RNA (tRNA), and ATP for its own replication
- Replication of Bacteriophages
o bacteriophages (phages) are viruses that parasitize a bacterial cell
o lytic cycle: a bacteriophage "life" cycle of five stages where a virus takes over operation of the bacterium immediately upon entering it and then destroys the bacterium
• attachment: portions of the capsid bind with receptors on the bacterial cell wall
• penetration: a viral enzyme digests part of cell wall; the viral DNA is injected into a bacterial cell
• biosynthesis: synthesis of viral components - begins after the virus brings about inactivation of host genes not necessary to viral replication
• maturation: viral DNA and capsids are assembled to produce several hundred viral particles and lysozyme, coded by the virus, is produced
• release: when lysozyme disrupts the cell wall (breaks down peptidoglycan), the viral particles are released and the bacterial cell dies (lysis)
o lysogenic cycle: a cycle where the virus incorporates its DNA into the bacterium but only later does it produce phage
• following attachment and penetration, viral DNA becomes integrated into bacterial DNA with no destruction of host DNA
• at this point the phage is latent and the viral DNA is called a prophage
• a prophage is replicated along with host DNA; all subsequent cells (lysogenic cells) carry a copy
• certain environmental factors (e.g., ultraviolet radiation) induce a prophage to enter the biosynthesis stage of the lytic cycle, followed by maturation and release
- Reproduction of Animal Viruses
o animal viruses replicate similarly to bacteriophages but there are modifications
o if the virus has an envelope, glycoprotein spikes allow it to adhere to plasma membrane receptors
o the virus genome covered by the capsid penetrates the host cell
o once inside, the virus is uncoated as the envelope and capsid are removed
o free of its covering, the viral genome (DNA or RNA) proceeds with biosynthesis
o newly assembled viral particles are released by budding
o components of viral envelopes (i.e., lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates) are obtained from the plasma or nuclear membrane of the host cell as viruses leave
o retrovirus: an RNA animal virus with a DNA stage
• retroviruses contain reverse transcriptase that carries out reverse transcription producing cDNA from RNA
• viral cDNA is integrated into host DNA and is replicated as host DNA replicates
• viral DNA is transcribed; new viruses are produced by biosynthesis, maturation and release by budding.
- Viral Infections
o viruses cause infectious diseases in plants and animals, including humans
o some animal viruses are specific to human cells: papillomavirus, herpes virus, hepatitis virus, and adenoviruses, which can cause specific cancers
o retroviruses include the AIDS viruses (e.g., HIV) and also cause certain forms of cancer
o some viruses are cancer-producing because they bring with them oncogenes, normal genes transformed so they can cause the cell to undergo repeated cell divisions
o in humans, viral diseases are controlled by preventing transmission, administering vaccines, and only recently by the administration of antiviral drugs
o antibiotics do not cure viral infections because viruses use host cell enzymes, not their own enzymes; interfering with the enzyme kills the host cell
o over 1,000 plant viruses cause diseases; virus infections are difficult to distinguish from nutrient deficiencies and plants are propagated to stay free of virus infection
o viroids are naked strands of RNA, a dozen of which cause crop diseases
o prions are newly discovered disease agents that vary from viruses and bacteria
• prions are proteins with a wrongly shaped tertiary structure that cause other proteins to distort
• Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease in humans and scrapie and mad cow disease (BSE) in cattle are due to prions
The Prokaryotes - the bacteria and archaea
- Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (Dutch naturalist, 17th century) discovered bacteria while examining scrapings from his teeth
- ~ 1850, Pasteur devised an experiment showing that the bacteria present in air contaminated the media
- Structure of Prokaryotes
o prokaryote means "before a nucleus" and their cells lack a eukaryotic nucleus
o prokaryotic fossils date back to 3.5 billion years ago...
o prokaryotes range in size from 1-10 µm in length and from 0.7-1.5 µm in width
o most prokaryotes have a rigid cell wall (made from peptidoglycan in bacteria) outside the plasma membrane that keeps the cell from bursting or collapsing due to osmotic changes
o glycocalyx surrounding the cell wall can be an organized capsule &/or a loose gelatinous sheath called a slime layer; in parasitic forms, these outer coverings protect the cell from host defenses
o flagella: structure outside cell used for locomotion by some prokaryotes
o fimbriae: short hairlike filaments extending from the surface that allow many prokaryotes adhere to surfaces
o prokaryotic cells lack the membranous organelles of eukaryotic cells
o metabolic pathways are located on the plasma membrane
o nucleoid: a dense area in prokaryotes where the chromosome is located; it is a single circular strand of DNA
o plasmids: accessory rings of DNA found in some prokaryotes; they can be extracted and used as vectors to carry foreign DNA into bacteria during genetic engineering procedures
o protein synthesis in prokaryotic cells is carried out by thousands of ribosomes, which are smaller than eukaryotic ribosomes
- Reproduction in Prokaryotes
o binary fission is a splitting of a parent cell into two daughter cells; it is asexual reproduction in prokaryotes
• mitosis does not occur in prokaryotes
o because prokaryotes have a short generation time, mutations are generated and distributed through a population more rapidly
o in bacteria, genetic recombination can occur in three ways:
• conjugation: a bacterium passes DNA to a second bacterium through a tube (sex pilus) that temporarily joins two cells; this occurs only between bacteria in the same or closely related species
• transformation: bacteria take up free pieces of DNA secreted by live bacteria or released by dead bacteria
• transduction: a bacteriophage transfers portions of bacterial DNA from one cell to another
o plasmids can carry genes for resistance to antibiotics and transfer them between bacteria by any of these processes
- Endospore Formation
o some bacteria form resistant endospores in response to unfavorable environmental conditions
o the chromosome & some cytoplasm dehydrate and are encased by three heavy, protective spore coats... the rest of the bacterial cell deteriorates and the endospore is released
o endospores survive in the harshest of environments: desert heat and dehydration, boiling temperatures, polar ice, and extreme ultraviolet radiation
o when environmental conditions are again suitable, the endospore absorbs water and grows out of spore coat & soon becomes a typical bacterium
o endospore formation is not reproduction but it is a means of survival and dispersal to new locations.
- Prokaryotic Nutrition:
o bacteria differ in the need for, and tolerance of, oxygen (O2)
• obligate anaerobes are unable to grow in the presence of O2 (anaerobic bacteria that cause botulism, gas gangrene, and tetanus)
• facultative anaerobes are able to grow in either the presence or absence of gaseous O2
• aerobic organisms (including animals and most prokaryotes) require a constant supply of O2 to carry out cellular respiration
o autotrophic prokaryotes
• photoautotrophs are photosynthetic and use light energy to assemble the organic molecules they require
• chemoautotrophs make organic molecules by using energy derived from the oxidation of inorganic compounds (H2S, NH3) in the environment
o heterotrophic prokaryotes
• most free-living bacteria are chemoheterotrophs that take in pre-formed organic nutrients
• decomposers are critical in recycling materials in the ecosystem; they decomposing dead organic matter and make it available to photosynthesizers
o commercial uses
• prokaryotes produce chemicals including ethyl alcohol, acetic acid, butyl alcohol, and acetones
• prokaryotic action produces butter, cheese, sauerkraut, rubber, cotton, silk, coffee and cocoa
• antibiotics are produced by some bacteria
o some chemoheterotrophs are symbiotic, forming intimate, long-term relationships with members of other species; includes mutualistic, commensalistic, and parasitic relationships
• mutualistic nitrogen-fixing Rhizobium bacteria live in nodules on roots of soybean, clover, and alfalfa where they reduce N2 to ammonia for their host; bacteria use some of a plant's photosynthetically produced organic molecules
• mutualistic bacteria that live in the intestines of humans benefit from undigested material and release vitamins K and B12, which we use to produce blood components
• in the stomachs of cows and goats, mutualistic prokaryotes digest cellulose (produce cellulase)
• commensalistic bacteria live in or on organisms of other species and cause them no harm
• parasitic bacteria are responsible for a wide variety of infectious plant, animal and human diseases
The Bacteria
- Gram Stain and Shape
o the Gram stain procedure (developed in the late 1880s by Hans Christian Gram) differentiates bacteria
• Gram-positive bacteria have a thick peptidoglycan cell wall & stain purple
• Gram-negative bacteria have a thin cell wall & stain pink
o bacteria and archaea have three basic shapes: spirillum (spiral-shaped), bacillus (elongated or rod-shaped bacteria) and coccus (spherical bacteria)
o cocci and bacilli tend to form clusters and chains of a length typical of the particular species
- Types of Bacteria
o 12 groups are now recognized based on bacterial 16S ribosomal RNA sequences
- Cyanobacteria
o cyanobacteria are Gram-negative bacteria with a number of unusual traits
o they photosynthesize in same manner as plants; are responsible for introducing O2 into the primitive atmosphere
o they were formerly mistaken for eukaryotes and classified with algae
o they have pigments that mask chlorophyll (blue-green, red, yellow, brown, black)
o they are relatively large (1-50 µm in width)
o they can be unicellular, colonial, or filamentous
o some move by gliding or oscillating
o some possess heterocysts, thick-walled cells without a nucleoid, where nitrogen fixation occurs
o cyanobacteria are common in fresh water, soil, on moist surfaces, and in harsh habitats (e.g., hot springs)
o some are symbiotic with other organisms (e.g., liverworts, ferns, and corals)
o lichens are a symbiotic relationship where the cyanobacteria provide organic nutrients to the fungus and the fungus protects and supplies inorganic nutrients
o cyanobacteria "bloom " when nitrates and phosphates are released as wastes into water; when they die off, decomposing bacteria use up the oxygen and cause fish kills
- Relationship to Domain Bacteria and Domain Eukarya
o Archaea are prokaryotes with molecular characteristics that distinguish them from bacteria and eukaryotes; their rRNA sequence is different from rRNA in bacteria
- Structure and Function
o Archaea have unusual lipids in their plasma membranes that allow them to function at high temperatures
o cell walls of archaea do not contain the peptidoglycan found in bacterial cell walls
o some are mutualistic or commensalistic but none are parasitic‹none are known to cause disease
- Types of Archaea
o methanogens live under anaerobic environments (e.g., marshes) where they produce methane
• methane released to the atmosphere contributes to the greenhouse effect; about 65% of methane found in our atmosphere is produced by methanogenic archaea
o halophiles require high salt concentrations (e.g., Great Salt Lake)
• usually they require 12-15% salt concentrations; ocean is only 3.5% salt
o thermoacidophiles live under hot, acidic environments (e.g., geysers). a. They survive best at temperatures above 80šC; some survive above boiling
• metabolism of sulfides forms acidic sulfates; these bacteria grow best at pH of 1 to 2
Chapter 22: The Protists
- Protists are classified in the domain Eukarya and the kingdom Protista
- the endosymbiotic hypothesis explains how the eukaryotic cells arose
o it proposes that aerobic bacteria became mitochondria & cyanobacteria became chloroplasts after being taken up by eukaryotic cells; spirochetes became flagella
- Giardia has two nuclei but no mitochondria; the nucleus therefore came before the mitochondria
- ecological importance of protists:
o some are of great medical importance in causing disease; others are ecologically important
o plankton float near the surface and serve as food for heterotrophic protists and animals
o plankton that photosynthesize produce much of the oxygen in the atmosphere
o many protists enter symbiotic relationships; coral reefs rely on symbiotic photosynthetic protists
- evolution of protists:
o multicellular algae are not plants; they do not protect their gametes and zygote from drying out
o none are fungi; those that resemble fungi lack flagella and do not have chitin in their cell wall
o none are animals; the heterotrophic protists do not undergo embryonic development
Diversity of the Protists
Algae: refers to many phyla that carry out photosynthesis; at one time, algae were grouped with plants because they have chlorophyll a and photosynthesize
- The Green Algae: Phylum Chlorophyta
o they live in the ocean but are more likely found in fresh water and can even be found on moist land
o green algae are not always green; some have pigments that give them an orange, red, or rust color
o body organizations include single cells, colonies, filaments and multicellular forms
o plants are considered to be most closely related to the green algae
o Chlamydomonas, a uicellular green algae
• Chlamydomonas is less than 25 m long; it has a cell wall and a single, large, cup-shaped chloroplast with a pyrenoid for starch synthesis
• the chloroplast contains a light-sensitive eyespot (stigma) that directs the cell to light for photosynthesis
• 2 long whiplike flagella project from the anterior end to propel the cell toward light
• Chlamydomonas reproduces asexually with zoospores when growth conditions are favorable, & reproduces sexually when growth conditions are unfavorable
• gametes from two different mating types join to form a zygote with a heavy wall; the resistant zygospore survives until conditions are favorable
• some are heterogametes similar to sperm and egg that stores food, a condition called oogamy
• in most, gametes are identical, a condition called isogamy
o Spirogyra, a filamentous green algae
• cell division in one plane produces end-to-end chains of cells or filaments
• Spirogyra is a filamentous algae found on surfaces of ponds and streams
• it has ribbonlike spiral chloroplasts
• 2 strands may unite in conjugation and exchange genetic material, forming a diploid zygote
o Multicellular Green Algae
• plants are probably most related to green algae because both have a cell wall with cellulose, have chlorophyll a and b, and store food as starch
• the multicellular Ulva is called sea lettuce because of its leafy appearance
⋅ the thallus (body) is two cells thick but can be a meter long
⋅ Ulva has an alternation of generations life cycle, as do plants, but the generations look alike
⋅ the gametes look alike (isogametes) and the spores are flagellated
• Stoneworts are green algae that live in freshwater lakes and ponds
⋅ the stonewort Chara forms a cell plate during cell division & has multicellular sex organs making plants most closely related to this group
⋅ Chara also has a stemlike body with nodes and internodes; the cells of the body originate from apical meristem, features that are homologous with plants
o Volvox, a colonial green algae
• Volvox is a hollow sphere with thousands of cells arranged in a single layer
• Volvox cells resembles Chlamydomonas cells; a colony arises as if daughter cells fail to separate
• Volvox cells cooperate when flagella beat in a coordinated fashion
• some cells are specialized forming a new daughter colony within the parental colony
- The Red Algae: Phylum Rhodophyta
- red algae are chiefly marine multicellular algae that live in warmer seawater
- they are generally much smaller and more delicate than brown algae
- some are filamentous, but most are branched, having a feathery, flat, or ribbonlike appearance
- coralline algae are red algae with cell walls with calcium carbonate; they contribute to coral reefs
- red algae are economically important
o mucilaginous material in cell walls of Gelidium and Gracilaria is the source of agar used in drug capsules, dental impressions, cosmetics
o in the laboratory, agar is a major microbiological media, and when purified, is a gel for electrophoresis
o agar is used in food preparation to keep baked goods from drying and to set jellies and desserts
o carrageen is an emulsifying agent extracted from Chondrus crispus and used in production of chocolate and cosmetics
- The Brown Algae: Phylum Phaeophyta
o they range from small forms with simple filaments to large multicellular (50-100 m long) seaweeds
o brown algae have chlorophylls a and c and a fucoxanthin giving them their color
o their reserve food is a carbohydrate called laminarin
o seaweed refers to any large, complex alga
o their cell walls contain a mucilaginous water-retaining material that inhibits desiccation (drying out)
o Laminaria is an intertidal kelp that is unique among protists; this genus shows tissue differentiation
o Nereocystis and Macrocystis are giant kelps found in deeper water anchored to the bottom by their holdfasts
o individuals of the genus Sargassum sometimes break off from their holdfasts and form floating masses
o brown algae provide food and habitat for marine organisms, and they are also important to humans
• brown algae are harvested for human food and for fertilizer in several parts of the world
• Macrocystis is a source of algin, a pectinlike substance added to give foods a stable, smooth consistency
• most have an alternation of generations life cycle
o Fucus is an intertidal rockweed; meiotic cell division produces gametes and adult is always diploid
- The Diatoms: Phylum Bacillariophyta (diatoms and golden brown alga)
o diatoms are the most numerous unicellular algae in the oceans and an important source of food and O2 in aquatic systems
o diatom cell walls consist of two silica (glass)-containing halves or valves with a variety of markings formed by pores
o diatom remains accumulate on the ocean floor and are mined as diatomaceous earth for use as filters, abrasives, etc.
- The Flagellates: Phylum Pyrrophyta (unicellular dinoflagellates)