Biology 101 Lecture Objectives

UNIT I: Chapters 1, 2, 3, 4, 5

 

Chapter 1

 

  1. Describe eight unifying themes in biology: 1) hierarchy of organization, 2) emergent properties, 3) cellular basis of life, 4) correlation of structure and function, 5) interaction of organisms with their environment, 6) inheritance of biological information, 7) unity in diversity, and 8) evolution.
  2. List, in order, the hierarchy of structural levels in biology: molecular level, cellular level, tissue level, organ level, organ systems, organism, populations, communities, ecosystems, biomes, biosphere.
  3. Describe the contributions of the following individuals to the development of biology as a science: Robert Hooke, Leeuwenhoek, Matthias Schleiden, Theodor Schwann, James Watson, Francis Crick, Gregor Mendel, Charles Darwin, and Carolus Linnaeus.
  4. Describe six emergent properties associated with life: 1) organisms are highly ordered, 2) organisms reproduce, 3) organisms grow and develop, 4) organisms take in and transform energy to do work, 5) organisms respond to stimuli from their environment, and 6) life evolves in response to interactions between organisms and their environment.
  5. Distinguish between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
  6. List and describe the basic function for the following structures associated with cells: plasma membrane, cell wall, chromosomes, nucleus, cytoplasm, organelles.
  7. List and distinguish among the five kingdoms of life in terms of: 1) prokaryotic or eukaryotic cell type, 2) unicellular or multicellular organisms, and 3) nutritional strategy (autotrophy or heterotroph).
  8. List the seven major taxa that are a part of the modern system of taxonomy: 1) kingdom, 2) phylum, 3) class, 4) order, 5) family, 6) genus, and 8) species.
  9. Describe what is meant by “binomial nomenclature” and give an example of a correctly written scientific name.
  10. Outline the steps that are a part of many “scientific methods”: 1) statement of problem, 2) generation of hypothesis, 3) experimentation that includes experimental and control groups, 4) conclusions, and 5) communication of results.
  11. Distinguish among scientific hypothesis, theory, and law.
  12. Define the following terms: taxonomy, evolution, natural selection.

 

Chapter 2

     

1.   Define matter, atom, element, and compound.

2.      Give the symbols for the following biologically important elements: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sulfur, sodium, chlorine, magnesium, iron, iodine.

3.      Describe the structure of an atom by comparing the size, location, and charge of the proton, neutron, and electron.

4.      Distinguish between atomic number and atomic weight. Given a periodic table, be able to locate the atomic number and weights for various elements.

5.      Define isotope and radioisotope. Describe several uses for radioisotopes in biological research and medicine. Define what is meant by “half-life”.

6.      Explain the “octet rule” and predict how many bonds an atom might form.

7.      Distinguish among covalent, ionic, and hydrogen bonds and give an example of a molecule whose structure is either held together or influenced by these types of bonds.

8.      Describe how ions are formed and distinguish between an anion and a cation.

 

Chapter 3

 

1.      Describe the structure of the water molecule.

2.      Describe the following properties of water: 1) versatility as a solvent, 2) high specific heat, 3) high heat of vaporization, 4) cohesiveness, 5) adhesiveness, 6) freezing point, 7) surface tension, 8) evaporative coolant.

3.      Explain how water’s high specific heat, high heat of vaporization and expansion upon freezing affect both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems.

4.      Define molarity.

5.      Write the equation for the dissociation of water. Describe the hydrogen and hydroxide ions.

6.      Define acid, base, and salt. Give several examples of each.

7.      Explain the basis for the pH scale and be able to locate acids, bases, and the point of neutrality on the pH scale.

8.      Explain how a buffer system works and the importance of buffer systems in biology.

9.      Define calorie and kilocalorie.

10.   Define solution, solvent, and solute.

 

Chapter 4

 

  1. Describe the structure of a carbon atom and explain how carbon’s electron configuration determines the kinds and number of bonds carbon will form.
  2. Relate the structure of the carbon atom to the complexity of organic compounds.
  3. Distinguish among structural, geometric, and optical isomers.
  4. Draw and recognize the following functional groups and describe the chemical properties of organic compounds in which they occur: hydroxyl, carbonyl, carboxyl, amino, sulfhydryl, phosphate.
  5. Define the following terms: organic, inorganic, hydrocarbons, isomer, alcohol, aldehyde, ketone.

 

Chapter 5

 

  1. Define polymer.
  2. Explain how covalent bonds in organic polymers are formed and broken by dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis.
  3. Compare carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids by: 1) describing the basic monomer, b) listing major categories for each, c) giving examples of molecules belonging to each category, and d) describing examples of the functional role played by each of these compounds.
  4. Describe the major groups of carbohydrates: monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides. Characterize the following compounds as monosaccharides, disaccharides, or polysaccharides and give the functional role for each in biological systems: glucose, fructose, galactose, sucrose, lactose, maltose, cellulose, glycogen, chitin, starch.
  5. Describe the structure of the following three classes of lipids: triglycerides (fats), phospholipids, and steroids. Describe the functional role of each of these in biological systems.
  6. Distinguish between a saturated and unsaturated fat based on a) carbon bonding pattern, b) solid or liquid nature at room temperature, and c) animal or plant fats. Classify bacon grease, lard, butter, corn oil, peanut oil, and olive oil as examples of either saturated or unsaturated fats.
  7. Describe the primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structure of proteins.
  8. Describe examples of the role played by proteins in terms of the following processes: 1) structure and support, b) storage, c) transport (hemoglobin), d) chemical messengers (hormones and neurotransmitters), e) movement (contractile proteins), f) defense (antibodies), and catalysis (enzymes).
  9. List and describe the four major components of an amino acid.
  10. Identify a peptide bond and describe how it is formed.
  11. Using collagen and hemoglobin as examples, describe the quarternary structure of a protein.
  12. Define denaturation and explain how proteins may be denatured.
  13. Describe the structure and functional role played by the nucleic acids DNA and RNA.
  14. List the three main components of a nucleotide and describe how these monomers are linked together to form a nucleic acid.
  15. Distinguish between a purine and pyrimidine.
  16. Be able to apply the “base pairing” rules to nucleic acid formation.

 

Unit II

Chapters 7, 8, and 11

 

Chapter 7

 

1.   Describe how the light microscope, electron microscope, and cell fractionation may be used to study the structure and function of cells.

2.      Distinguish between resolving power and magnifications.

3.      Describe the advantages and limitations of the light microscope,

      transmission electron microscope, and scanning electron microscope.

4.      Distinguish between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.

5.      Explain why there are both upper and lower limits to cell size.

6.      Explain why compartmentalization is important in eukaryotic cells.

7.      Describe the structure and function of the following organelles and sub

      cellular structures: nucleus, nuclear membrane, ribosome, lysosome, mitochondrion, amyloplast, chloroplast, chromoplast, cytoskeleton, smooth ER, rough ER, microtubules, microfilaments, cilia, flagella, glycocaly, centriole, peroxisomes, vesicle, vacuole, Golgi apparatus, chromatin, chromosomes.

8.      Compare the function of free ribosomes to those attached to the ER.

9.      Describe the importance of compartmentalization to mitochodrial function.

10.   Define grana, stroma, and thylakoid; and describe the importance of compartmentalization to choloroplast function.

11.   Describe the development of plant cell walls.

12.   List three functions of the glycocalyx in animal cells.

13.   Compare the following cell junctions in terms of structure and junction:

      tight junctions, gap junctions, desmosomes, plasmodesmata.

 

Chapter 8

 

  1. Describe the function of the plasma membrane,
  2. Describe the “fluid mosaic” model of the structure of the plasma membrane.
  3. Explain how hydrophobic interactions determine membrane structure and function.
  4. Describe how particle size, concentration, and temperature affect the rate of diffusion.
  5. Define osmosis and describe the effect of placing a hypothetical cell in a Hypotonic, hypertonic, and isotonic solution.
  6. Define facilitated diffusion and describe the type of molecules most frequently transported in this manner in human physiology.
  7. Explain how active transport differs from diffusion and facilitated transport.
  8. Define the following terms: phospholipid bilayer, integral proteins, peripheral proteins, selective permeability, solution, solute, solvent, exocytosis, endocytosis, phagocytosis, and pinocytosis.

 

Chapter 11

 

  1. Describe the process of binary fission in prokaryotes.
  2. Outline and describe the necessary steps for mitosis (interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase) including the reproduction of cellular organelles such as mitochondria, chloroplasts, and centrioles.
  3. List and describe the stages of the cell cycle.
  4. Recognize the stages of mitosis from diagrams and micrographs.
  5. Define cytokinesis, and compare that which occurs in plants and animals.
  6. List and describe several factors which stimulate or inhibit cell growth.
  7. Explain how abnormal cell division (cancer) differs from normal cell division.
  8. Define the following terms: somatic cell, chromosomes, sister chromatid, centromere, centriole, mitotic spindle, asters, metaphase plate, cleavage, contact inhibition.

 

Unit III

Chapters 6, 9, and 10

 

Chapter 6

 

1.      Explain the First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics as they relate to

      living systems.

2.      Define entropy.

3.      Describe the utility of free energy.

4.      Distinguish between endergonic and exergonic reactions.

5.      Describe the function of ATP in a cell.

6.      List the three components of ATP and identify the major class of

      macromolecules (nucleic acids - nucleotides) to which it belongs.

7.      Explain how ATP performs cellular work.

8.      Describe the function of enzymes in a biological system.

9.      Explain the induced fit model of enzyme function and describe the

      catalytic cycle of an enzyme.

10.   Describe the method by which enzymes lower activation energy.

11.   Explain how substrate concentration, temperature, and pH affect the rate of enzyme activity.

12.   Explain how cofactors, enzyme inhibitors, and allosteric regulators affect enzyme activity.

13.   Define the following terms: metabolism, catabolism, anabolism, kinetic energy, potential energy, substrate, induced fit, coenzyme, feedback inhibition.

 

Chapter 9

 

  1. Write a balanced, summary equation for cellular respiration.
  2. Distinguish between subtrate-level and oxidative phosphorylation.
  3. Define oxidation and reduction.
  4. Explain how redox reaction are involved in energy exchanges.
  5. Define coenzymes and list those involved in respiration.
  6. Compare glycolysis, Kreb’s Cycle, and electron transporty in terms of: a) initial compounds and products, b) number of actual ATP molecules produced c) location of reaction within the cell
  7. Write a summary equation for glycolysis.
  8. Describe where pyruvic acid is oxidized to acetyl CoA, what molecules are produced, and how it links glycolysis to Kreb’s Cycle.
  9. Describe the process of chemiosmosis.
  10. Summarize the net ATP yield from the oxidation of a glucose molecule by constructing an ATP ledger which includes coenzyme production during the different stages of glycolysis and cellular respiration.
  11. Describe the fate of pyruvic acid in the absence of oxygen.
  12. Define fermentation and explain its necessity.
  13. Distinguish between aerobic and anaerobic respiration in terms of energy production.
  14. Define the following: cellular respiration, phosphorylation, NAD, FAD, cytochrome, proton gradient, obligate aerobes, obligate anaerobe, facultative anaerobe.

 

Chapter 10

 

  1. Distinguish between autotrophic and heterotrophic nutrition.
  2. Explain how chloroplast structure is related to function.
  3. Write a balanced, summary equation for photosynthesis.
  4. Explain the relationship between the action spectrum and absorption spectrum in photosynthesis.
  5. List the wavelengths of light that are the most effective in photosynthesis.
  6. Trace the electron flow through photosystems I and II.
  7. Summarize the carbon-fixing reactions of the Calvin-Benson Cycle.
  8. Describe the role of ATP and NADPH in the Calvin-Benson cycle.
  9. Describe the fate of photosynthetic products.
  10. Define the following terms: autotrophic, heterotrophic, mesophyll, stomata, vascular bundles, photon, chlorophyll a, chlorophyll, b. caroteniods, P700, P680, cyclic electron flow, noncyclic electron flow, C3 pathway, C4 pathway.

 

Unit IV

Chapters 12, 13, 14, 15, 16

 

Chapter 12

 

1.      Distinguish between asexual and sexual reproduction.

2.      Distinguish between mitosis and meiosis as to the role each plays in human physiology.

3.      List the phases of meiosis I and II and describe the events characteristic of each phase.

4.      Recognize the phases of meiosis from diagrams or micrographs.

5.      Describe the process of synapsis and explain how genetic recombination occurs.

6.      Explain how independent assortment, crossing over, and random fertilization contribute to genetic variation in sexually reproducing organisms.

7.      Define the following terms: genetics, genes, genome, mutation, karyotype, homologous chromosomes, locus, sex chromosomes, autosomes, diploid cells, haploid cells, gametes, interkinesis, sister chromatid, crossing over, genetic recombination.

 

Chapter 13

 

  1. List five features of Mendel’s methods that contributed to his success.
  2. State four (4) components of Mendel’s hypothesis of inheritance.
  3. State Mendel’s law of Segregation.
  4. Use a Punnett Suqare to predict the results of a monohybrid cross and state the phenotypic and genotypic ratios of the F2 generation.
  5. Distinguish between genotype and phenotype; heterozygous and homozygous; dominant and recessive.
  6. Explain how a testcross can be used to determine if a dominant phenotype is homozygous or heterozygous.
  7. State Medel’s law of Independent Assortment.
  8. Use a Punnett Square to predict the results of a dihybrid cross.
  9. Define incomplete dominance.
  10. Describe the inheritance of the ABO blood system.
  11. Given a simple family pedigree, reduce the genotypes for some of the family members.
  12. Describe the inheritance and expression of: Tay-Sachs disease, cystic fibrosis, and sickle cell anemia.
  13. Explain how the following may be used in genetic screening and counseling: ultrasound, amniocentesis, chorionic villi sampling.
  14. Define the following: P1, F1, F2, alleles, multiple alleles, codominance, lethal recessive, PKU.

 

Chapter 14

 

  1. Describe the contributions of Walter Sutton and Thomas Hunt Morgan to the current understanding of chromosomal inheritance.
  2. Explain why Drosophila melanogaster is a good experimental organism.
  3. Define linkage and explain why linkage interferes with independent assortment.
  4. Map a chromosome using recombinant frequencies for experimental crosses.
  5. Distinguish between monoecious and dioecious.
  6. Describe the inheritance of sex-linked gene such as color-blindness and homophilia.
  7. Explain why a recessive sex-linked gene is always expressed in human males.
  8. Distinguish between nondisjunction, aneuploidy, and polyploidy; explain how these major chromosomal changes occur and describe the consequences.
  9. Distinguish among deletions, duplications, translocations, and inversions.
  10. Describe the type of chromosomal alterations implicated in the following human disorders:  Down syndrome, Klinefelter syndrome, Turner syndrome, metafemale, extra Y.
  11.  Define the following: wild type, recombinant, locus, point mutation, chromosomal mutation, Barr body, sex-influenced trait.

 

Chapter 15

 

  1. Summarize the experiments of the following scientists, which provided evidence that DNA is the genetic material and how DNA operates:

  a.      Fred Griffith

  b.      Hershey and Chase

  c.      Chargaff

  d.      Meselson-Stahl

  e.      Watson and Crick

  f.       Rosalind Franklin

  1. List the three components of a nucleotide.
  2. List the nitrogen basis found in DNA and RNA and explain the base pairing rule.
  3. Describe the structure of DNA and the type of bonds that hold the nucleotides of each strand and the two strands together.
  4. Explain semi-conservative DNA replication and the roles played by DNA polymerase and ligase.

 

Chapter 16

 

  1. Describe Beadle and Tatum’s experiment with Neurospora that led to the one gene-one enzyme hypothesis.
  2. Describe three ways in which DNA differs from RBA.
  3. Explain the processes of transcription and translation.
  4. Distinguish among mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA.
  5. Define codon and anticodon and how this coding system operates in protein synthesis.
  6. Given a sequence of DNA, be able to give the correct mRNA and tTRA sequences that would be involved in protein synthesis.
  7. Define the following: mutagenesis, frameshift mutation, point mutation.

 

Unit V

Chapters 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24

 

Chapter 19

 

  1. Define recombinant DNA.
  2. Describe the natural function of restriction enzymes and the role they play in genetic engineering.
  3. Describe the function of reverse transcriptase in retroviruses and explain how they are useful in recombinant DNA technology.
  4. Describe how bacteria can be induced to form eukaryotic gene products.
  5. Describe five practical applications of recombinant DNA technology in biological research, agriculture, and medicine.
  6. Define: human genome project, gel electrophoresis, plasmid, transformation, bacteriophage.

 

Chapter 20

 

  1. Explain the contribution of the following researchers to theories of evolution and natural selection: Charles Darwin, Carolus Linnaeus, Georges Cuvier, Jean Baptiste Lamarck, Alfred Russel Wallace, Charles Lyell, Thomas Malthus.
  2. Describe how Darwin used his observations from the votage of the Beagle to formulate and support his theory of evolution.
  3. Describe five major points to Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection.
  4. Describe five lines of evidence Darwin used to support the principle of natural selection.
  5. Compare the theories of Lamarck and Darwin in terms of offering an explanation for evolution.
  6. Distinguish between artificial selection and natural selection.
  7. Describe how molecular biology can be used to study the evolutionary relationships among organisms.
  8. Define the following terms: taxonomy, paleontology, fossils, gradualism, acquired characteristics, Galapagos islands, mutations, population genetics, homologous structures, vestigial structures, ontogeny, phylogeny.

 

Chapter 21

 

  1. Explain how microevolutionary change can affect a gene pool.
  2. State the Hardy-Weinberg theorom.
  3. List the five conditions a population must meet in order to maintain Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium.
  4. Explain how genetic drift, gene flow, mutation, monrandom mating, and natural selection can cause microevolution.
  5. Explain the role of poulation size in genetic drift.
  6. Distinguish among stabilizing selection, directional selection, and diversifying selection.
  7. Define: species, gene pool, gene flow, polymorphic, sexual selection.

 

Chapter 23

 

  1. Describe five ways in which fossils form.
  2. Explain the importance of the fossil record to the study of evolution.
  3. Explain how isotopes can be used in absolute dating.
  4. Explain how preadaptation can result in macroevolutionary change.
  5. Explain how continental drift may have played a role in macroevolutionary change.
  6. Explain how mass extinctions could occur and affect evolution of the surviving forms.
  7. Describe the theory of evolution referred to as punctuated equilibrium.
  8. Define: index fossil, half-life, adaptive radiation.

 

Chapter 24

 

1.      Describe the contributions made by Oparin, Haldane, Miller, and Urey towards developing a model for abiotic synthesis of organic molecules.

2.      Describe the evidence that exists to supprt the hypothesis that chemical evolution resulting in life’s origin occurred in four stages:

      a.  abiotic synthesis of organic monomers

      b.    abiotic synthesis of polymers

      c.    formation of protobionts

      d.    origin of genetic information

3.      List and distinguish among the five Kingdoms as to: a) Cell type, b) multicellular/unicellular, and c) nutrition (autotrophy/heterotroph).

4.      Define: big bang theory, proteinoids, coacervates, microsphers.

 

Unit VI

Chapters 46, 47, 48, 49

 

Chapter 46

 

  1. Explain why ecology is a multidisciplinary science.
  2. Explain the importance of temperature, water, light, soil, and wind to living organisms.
  3. Describe how environmental changes may produce behavioral, physiological, morphological, or adaptive responses in organisms.
  4. Describe the characteristics of the major biomes: tropical forest, savanna, desert, chaparral, temperate grassland, temperate forest, taiga, tundra in terms of climate, diversity of plants and animals, and geographical location.
  5. Identify the various zones found in a marine environment.
  6. Define: ecology, abiotic factors, population, community, biome, ecosytem, biosphere, succession, photic zone, benthic zone, intertidal zone, pelagic.

 

Chapter 47

 

  1. Distinguish between density and dispersion.
  2. Describe conditions that result in climped, random, or uniform dispersion patterns.
  3. Describe the characteristics that exhibit Type I, Type II, and Type III survivorship curves.
  4. Explain how the carrying capacity of the environment affects the intrinsic rate of increase of a population.
  5. Explain how density-dependent and density-independent factors may affect a population’s growth.
  6. Distinguish between r-selected and K-selected populations.
  7. Define: demography, age structure, life table.

 

Chapter 48

 

  1. Explain how interspecific competition may affect community structure.
  2. Describe the Competitive Exclusion Principle.
  3. Distinguish between an organism’s fundamental niche and realized niche.
  4. Explain how resource partitioning can affect species diversity.
  5. Explain the following processes and cite examples: Batesian mimicry, Mullerian mimicry, cryptic coloration, parasitism, mutaulsim, commensalisms, predatory-prey interactions.
  6. Distinguish between primary and secondary succession.
  7. Define: trophic structure, coevolution, symbiosis, climax community.

 

Chapter 49

 

  1. List and describe the importance of the four consumer levels found in an ecosystem.
  2. Explain the difference between gross primary productivity and net primary productivity.
  3. Explain why productivity declines at each trophic level.
  4. Distinguish between energy pyramids and biomass pyramids.
  5. Describe the important steps in the following cycles: hydrologic, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus.
  6. Define eutrophication.
  7. Explain why toxic compounds have the greatest effect on top-level carnivores.
  8. Define: ecosystem, primary producers, primary consumers, secondary consumers, tertiary consumers, detrivores, food chain, food web, biomass, mimiting nutrient, energy pyramid, biogeochemical cycling, eutophic, biologtical magnification, greenhouse effect.